Rimoldi, I.

New J. Chem. 2018, 42, 18773-18776, 10.1039/C8NJ04558E

The imine reductase formed by the (R)-CAMPY ligand bound to the S112M Sav mutant showed an 83% ee in the asymmetric transfer hydrogenation of 6,7-dimethoxy-1-methyl-3,4-dihydroisoquinoline.

Hayashi, T

Chem. Commun. 2011, 47, 8229, 10.1039/c1cc11157d

The diiron carbonyl cluster is held by a native CXXC motif, which includes Cys14 and Cys17, in the cytochrome c sequence. It is found that the diiron carbonyl complex works well as a catalyst for H2 evolution. It has a TON of ∼80 over 2 h at pH 4.7 in the presence of a Ru-photosensitizer and ascorbate as a sacrificial reagent in aqueous media.

Pellegrino, S.; Rimoldi, I.

Inorg. Chem. 2021, 60, 2976-2982, 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.0c02969

Based on the supramolecular interaction between vancomycin (Van), an antibiotic glycopeptide, and D-Ala-D-Ala (DADA) dipeptides, a novel class of artificial metalloenzymes was synthesized and characterized. The presence of an iridium(III) ligand at the N-terminus of DADA allowed the use of the metalloenzyme as a catalyst in the asymmetric transfer hydrogenation of cyclic imines. In particular, the type of link between DADA and the metal-chelating moiety was found to be fundamental for inducing asymmetry in the reaction outcome, as highlighted by both computational studies and catalytic results. Using the [IrCp*(m-I)Cl]Cl ⊂ Van complex in 0.1 M CH3COONa buffer at pH 5, a significant 70% (S) e.e. was obtained in the reduction of quinaldine B.

Okuda, J.

Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2016, 12, 1314-1321, 10.3762/bjoc.12.124

Copper(I) and copper(II) complexes were covalently linked to an engineered variant of the transmembrane protein Ferric hydroxamate uptake protein component A (FhuA ΔCVFtev). Copper(I) was incorporated using an N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) ligand equipped with a maleimide group on the side arm at the imidazole nitrogen. Copper(II) was attached by coordination to a terpyridyl ligand. The spacer length was varied in the back of the ligand framework. These biohybrid catalysts were shown to be active in the Diels–Alder reaction of a chalcone derivative with cyclopentadiene to preferentially give the endo product.

Ward, T.R.; Woolfson, D.N.

ACS Catal. 2018, 8, 1476-1484, 10.1021/acscatal.7b03773

The streptavidin scaffold was expanded with well-structured naturally occurring motifs. These chimeric scaffolds were tested as hosts for biotinylated catalysts as artificial metalloenzymes (ArM) for asymmetric transfer hydrogenation, ring-closing metathesis and anion−π catalysis. The additional second coordination sphere elements significantly influence both the activity and the selectivity of the resulting hybrid catalysts. These findings lead to the identification of propitious chimeric streptavidins for future directed evolution efforts of artificial metalloenzymes.

Maréchal, J.-D.

ACS Catal. 2014, 4, 833-842, 10.1021/cs400921n

We present a computational study that combines protein–ligand docking, quantum mechanical, and quantum mechanical/molecular mechanical calculations to scrutinize the mechanistic behavior of the first artificial enzyme able to enantioselectively reduce cyclic imines. We applied a novel strategy that allows the characterization of transition state structures in the protein host and their associated reaction paths. Of the most striking results of our investigation is the identification of major conformational differences between the transition state geometries of the lowest energy paths leading to (R)- and (S)-reduction products. The molecular features of (R)- and (S)-transition states highlight distinctive patterns of hydrophobic and polar complementarities between the substrate and the binding site. These differences lead to an activation energy gap that stands in very good agreement with the experimentally determined enantioselectivity. This study sheds light on the mechanism by which transfer hydrogenases operate and illustrates how the change of environment (from homogeneous solution conditions to the asymmetric protein frame) affect the reactivity of the organometallic cofactor. It provides novel insights on the complexity in integrating unnatural organometallic compounds into biological scaffolds. The modeling strategy that we pursued, based on the generation of “pseudo transition state” structures, is computationally efficient and suitable for the discovery and optimization of artificial enzymes. Alternatively, this approach can be applied on systems for which a large conformational sampling is needed to identify relevant transition states.

Onoda, A.

J. Inorg. Biochem. 2016, 158, 55-61, 10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2015.12.026

A hybrid biocatalyst containing a metal terpyridine (tpy) complex within a rigid β-barrel protein nitrobindin (NB) is constructed. A tpy ligand with a maleimide group, N-[2-([2,2′:6′,2′′-terpyridin]-4′-yloxy)ethyl]maleimide (1), was covalently linked to Cys96 inside the cavity of NB to prepare a conjugate NB–1. Binding of Cu2 +, Zn2 +, or Co2 + ion to the tpy ligand in NB–1 was confirmed by UV–vis spectroscopy and ESI–TOF MS measurements. Cu2 +-bound NB–1 is found to catalyze a Diels–Alder reaction between azachalcone and cyclopentadiene in 22% yield, which is higher than that of the Cu2 +–tpy complex without the NB matrix. The results suggest that the hydrophobic cavity close to the copper active site within the NB scaffold supports the binding of the two substrates, dienophile and diene, to promote the reaction.

Watanabe, Y.

J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2005, 127, 6556-6562, 10.1021/ja045995q

New methods for the synthesis of artificial metalloenzymes are important for the construction of novel biocatalysts and biomaterials. Recently, we reported new methodology for the synthesis of artificial metalloenzymes by reconstituting apo-myoglobin with metal complexes (Ohashi, M. et al., Angew Chem., Int. Ed.2003, 42, 1005−1008). However, it has been difficult to improve their reactivity, since their crystal structures were not available. In this article, we report the crystal structures of MIII(Schiff base)·apo-A71GMbs (M = Cr and Mn). The structures suggest that the position of the metal complex in apo-Mb is regulated by (i) noncovalent interaction between the ligand and surrounding peptides and (ii) the ligation of the metal ion to proximal histidine (His93). In addition, it is proposed that specific interactions of Ile107 with 3- and 3‘-substituent groups on the salen ligand control the location of the Schiff base ligand in the active site. On the basis of these results, we have successfully controlled the enantioselectivity in the sulfoxidation of thioanisole by changing the size of substituents at the 3 and 3‘ positions. This is the first example of an enantioselective enzymatic reaction regulated by the design of metal complex in the protein active site.

Reetz, M.T.

Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2006, 45, 2416-2419, 10.1002/anie.200504561

Chirality from blood: Serum albumins form strong complexes with CuII–phthalocyanines, leading to protein conjugates. These hybrid catalysts promote enantioselective Diels–Alder reactions, such as that of azachalcones 1 with cyclopentadiene (2) to give products 3 with 85–98 % ee.

Watanabe, Y.

Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2006, 103, 9416-9421, 10.1073/pnas.0510968103

Protein-to-protein electron transfer (ET) is a critical process in biological chemistry for which fundamental understanding is expected to provide a wealth of applications in biotechnology. Investigations of protein–protein ET systems in reductive activation of artificial cofactors introduced into proteins remains particularly challenging because of the complexity of interactions between the cofactor and the system contributing to ET. In this work, we construct an artificial protein–protein ET system, using heme oxygenase (HO), which is known to catalyze the conversion of heme to biliverdin. HO uses electrons provided from NADPH/cytochrome P450 reductase (CPR) through protein–protein complex formation during the enzymatic reaction. We report that a FeIII(Schiff-base), in the place of the active-site heme prosthetic group of HO, can be reduced by NADPH/CPR. The crystal structure of the Fe(10-CH2CH2COOH-Schiff-base)·HO composite indicates the presence of a hydrogen bond between the propionic acid carboxyl group and Arg-177 of HO. Furthermore, the ET rate from NADPH/CPR to the composite is 3.5-fold faster than that of Fe(Schiff-base)·HO, although the redox potential of Fe(10-CH2CH2COOH-Schiff-base)·HO (−79 mV vs. NHE) is lower than that of Fe(Schiff-base)·HO (+15 mV vs. NHE), where NHE is normal hydrogen electrode. This work describes a synthetic metal complex activated by means of a protein–protein ET system, which has not previously been reported. Moreover, the result suggests the importance of the hydrogen bond for the ET reaction of HO. Our Fe(Schiff-base)·HO composite model system may provide insights with regard to design of ET biosystems for sensors, catalysts, and electronics devices.

Ward, T.R.

ACS Catal. 2016, 6, 3553-3557, 10.1021/acscatal.6b00258

NADH mimics (mNADHs) have been shown to accelerate and orthogonally activate ene reductase-catalyzed reactions. However, existing regeneration methods of NAD(P)H fail for mNADHs. Catalysis with artificial metalloenzymes based on streptavidin (Sav) variants and a biotinylated iridium cofactor enable mNADH regeneration with formate. This regeneration can be coupled with ene reductase-catalyzed asymmetric reduction of α,β-unsaturated compounds, because of the protective compartmentalization of the organometallic cofactor. With 10 mol % mNAD+, a preparative scale reaction (>100 mg) gave full conversion with 98% ee, where TTNs reached 2000, with respect to the Ir cofactor under ambient atmosphere in aqueous medium.

Ward, T.R.

ChemCatChem 2014, 6, 1010-1014, 10.1002/cctc.201300825

We report on the optimization of an artificial imine reductase based on the biotin‐streptavidin technology. With the aim of rapidly generating chemical diversity, a novel strategy for the formation and evaluation of biotinylated complexes is disclosed. Tethering the biotin‐anchor to the Cp* moiety leaves three free coordination sites on a d6 metal for the introduction of chemical diversity by coordination of a variety of ligands. To test the concept, 34 bidentate ligands were screened and a selection of the 6 best was tested in the presence of 21 streptavidin (Sav) isoforms for the asymmetric imine reduction by the resulting three legged piano stool complexes. Enantiopure α‐amino amides were identified as promising bidentate ligands: up to 63 % ee and 190 turnovers were obtained in the formation of 1‐phenyl‐1,2,3,4‐tetrahydroisoquinoline with [IrCp*biotin(L‐ThrNH2)Cl]⊂SavWT as a catalyst.

Ward, T.R.

Nat. Protoc. 2016, 11, 835-852, 10.1038/nprot.2016.019

Artificial metalloenzymes (ArMs) based on the incorporation of a biotinylated metal cofactor within streptavidin (Sav) combine attractive features of both homogeneous and enzymatic catalysts. To speed up their optimization, we present a streamlined protocol for the design, expression, partial purification and screening of Sav libraries. Twenty-eight positions have been subjected to mutagenesis to yield 335 Sav isoforms, which can be expressed in 24-deep-well plates using autoinduction medium. The resulting cell-free extracts (CFEs) typically contain >1 mg of soluble Sav. Two straightforward alternatives are presented, which allow the screening of ArMs using CFEs containing Sav. To produce an artificial transfer hydrogenase, Sav is coupled to a biotinylated three-legged iridium pianostool complex Cp*Ir(Biot-p-L)Cl (the cofactor). To screen Sav variants for this application, you would determine the number of free binding sites, treat them with diamide, incubate them with the cofactor and then perform the reaction with your test compound (the example used in this protocol is 1-phenyl-3,4-dihydroisoquinoline). This process takes 20 d. If you want to perform metathesis reactions, Sav is coupled to a biotinylated second-generation Grubbs-Hoveyda catalyst. In this application, it is best to first immobilize Sav on Sepharose-iminobiotin beads and then perform washing steps. Elution from the beads is achieved in an acidic reaction buffer before incubation with the cofactor. Catalysis using your test compound (in this protocol, 2-(4-(N,N-diallylsulfamoyl)phenyl)-N,N,N-trimethylethan-1-aminium iodide) is performed using the formed metalloenzyme. Screening using this approach takes 19 d.

Onoda, A.

ACS Catal. 2014, 4, 2645-2648, 10.1021/cs500392e

The hydrogen-evolving diiron complex, (μ-S)2Fe2(CO)6 with a tethered maleimide moiety was synthesized and covalently embedded within the cavity of a rigid β-barrel protein matrix by coupling a maleimide moiety to a cysteine residue within the β-barrel. The (μ-S)2Fe2(CO)6 core within the cavity was characterized by UV–vis absorption and a characteristic CO vibration determined by IR measurements. The diiron complex embedded within the cavity retains the necessary catalytic activity (TON up to 130 for 6 h) to evolve H2 via a photocatalytic cycle with a Ru photosensitizer in a solution of 100 mM ascorbate and 50 mM Tris/HCl at pH 4.0 and 25 °C.

Watanabe, Y.

Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2003, 42, 1005-1008, 10.1002/anie.200390256

Insertion of a symmetric metal complex, [CrIII(5,5′‐tBu‐salophen)]+ (H2salophen=N,N′‐bis(salicylidene)‐1,2‐phenylenediamine), into the active site of apomyoglobin is demonstrated (see picture). The metal ion and the ligand structure are very important factors that influence the binding affinity of the metal complex with the myoglobin (Mb) cavity. Semisynthetic metalloenzymes can catalyze enantioselective sulfoxidation by using the chiral protein cavity.

Kazlauskas, R.J.

ChemCatChem 2010, 2, 953-957, 10.1002/cctc.201000159

CA confidential: Replacing the active‐site zinc in carbonic anhydrase (CA) by rhodium forms a new enzymatic catalyst for cofactor‐free hydroformylation of styrene with syn gas. Unlike free rhodium, this rhodium–protein hybrid, [Rh]–CA, is regioselective (8.4:1) for linear over branched aldehyde product, which is a 40‐fold change in regioselectivity compared to free rhodium.