Roelfes, G.

ACS Cent. Sci. 2019, 5, 206-208, 10.1021/acscentsci.9b00015

Directed evolution generated an enzyme for the enantioselective synthesis of α-trifluoromethylated organoborons—potentially attractive synthons for fluorinated compounds.

Ward, T.R.

ACS Cent. Sci. 2019, 5, 1120-1136, 10.1021/acscentsci.9b00397

Artificial metalloenzymes (ArMs) result from the incorporation of an abiotic metal cofactor within a protein scaffold. From the earliest techniques of transition metals adsorbed on silk fibers, the field of ArMs has expanded dramatically over the past 60 years to encompass a range of reaction classes and inspired approaches: Assembly of the ArMs has taken multiple forms with both covalent and supramolecular anchoring strategies, while the scaffolds have been intuitively selected and evolved, repurposed, or designed in silico. Herein, we discuss some of the most prominent recent examples of ArMs to highlight the challenges and opportunities presented by the field.

Hartwig, J.F.

ACS Cent. Sci. 2017, 3, 302-308, 10.1021/acscentsci.6b00391

Enzymes catalyze organic transformations with exquisite levels of selectivity, including chemoselectivity, stereoselectivity, and substrate selectivity, but the types of reactions catalyzed by enzymes are more limited than those of chemical catalysts. Thus, the convergence of chemical catalysis and biocatalysis can enable enzymatic systems to catalyze abiological reactions with high selectivity. Recently, we disclosed artificial enzymes constructed from the apo form of heme proteins and iridium porphyrins that catalyze the insertion of carbenes into a C–H bond. We postulated that the same type of Ir(Me)-PIX enzymes could catalyze the cyclopropanation of a broad range of alkenes with control of multiple modes of selectivity. Here, we report the evolution of artificial enzymes that are highly active and highly stereoselective for the addition of carbenes to a wide range of alkenes. These enzymes catalyze the cyclopropanation of terminal and internal, activated and unactivated, electron-rich and electron-deficient, conjugated and nonconjugated alkenes. In particular, Ir(Me)-PIX enzymes derived from CYP119 catalyze highly enantio- and diastereoselective cyclopropanations of styrene with ±98% ee, >70:1 dr, >75% yield, and ∼10,000 turnovers (TON), as well as 1,2-disubstituted styrenes with up to 99% ee, 35:1 dr, and 54% yield. Moreover, Ir(Me)-PIX enzymes catalyze cyclopropanation of internal, unactivated alkenes with up to 99% stereoselectivity, 76% yield, and 1300 TON. They also catalyze cyclopropanation of natural products with diastereoselectivities that are complementary to those attained with standard transition metal catalysts. Finally, Ir(Me)-PIX P450 variants react with substrate selectivity that is reminiscent of natural enzymes; they react preferentially with less reactive internal alkenes in the presence of more reactive terminal alkenes. Together, the studies reveal the suitability of Ir-containing P450s to combine the broad reactivity and substrate scope of transition metal catalysts with the exquisite selectivity of enzymes, generating catalysts that enable reactions to occur with levels and modes of activity and selectivity previously unattainable with natural enzymes or transition metal complexes alone.

Head-Gordon, T.

ACS Cent. Sci. 2021, 7, 72-80, 10.1021/acscentsci.0c01556

As biocatalysts, enzymes are characterized by their high catalytic efficiency and strong specificity but are relatively fragile by requiring narrow and specific reactive conditions for activity. Synthetic catalysts offer an opportunity for more chemical versatility operating over a wider range of conditions but currently do not reach the remarkable performance of natural enzymes. Here we consider some new design strategies based on the contributions of nonlocal electric fields and thermodynamic fluctuations to both improve the catalytic step and turnover for rate acceleration in arbitrary synthetic catalysts through bioinspired studies of natural enzymes. With a focus on the enzyme as a whole catalytic construct, we illustrate the translational impact of natural enzyme principles to synthetic enzymes, supramolecular capsules, and electrocatalytic surfaces.

Ghirlanda, G.

Methods Enzymol. 2016, 389-416, 10.1016/bs.mie.2016.06.001

The last decades have seen an increased interest in finding alternative means to produce renewable fuels in order to satisfy the growing energy demands and to minimize environmental impact. Nature can serve as an inspiration for development of these methodologies, as enzymes are able to carry out a wide variety of redox processes at high efficiency, employing a wide array of earth-abundant transition metals to do so. While it is well recognized that the protein environment plays an important role in tuning the properties of the different metal centers, the structure/function relationships between amino acids and catalytic centers are not well resolved. One specific approach to study the role of proteins in both electron and proton transfer is the biomimetic design of redox active peptides, binding organometallic clusters in well-understood protein environments. Here we discuss different strategies for the design of peptides incorporating redox active FeS clusters, [FeFe]-hydrogenase organometallic mimics, and porphyrin centers into different peptide and protein environments in order to understand natural redox enzymes.

Tezcan, F.A.

Methods Enzymol. 2016, 10.1016/bs.mie.2016.05.009

Owing to their central roles in cellular signaling, construction, and biochemistry, protein–protein interactions (PPIs) and protein self-assembly have become a major focus of molecular design and synthetic biology. In order to circumvent the complexity of constructing extensive noncovalent interfaces, which are typically involved in natural PPIs and protein self-assembly, we have developed two design strategies, metal-directed protein self-assembly (MDPSA) and metal-templated interface redesign (MeTIR). These strategies, inspired by both the proposed evolutionary roles of metals and their prevalence in natural PPIs, take advantage of the favorable properties of metal coordination (bonding strength, directionality, and reversibility) to guide protein self-assembly with minimal design and engineering. Using a small, monomeric protein (cytochrome cb562) as a model building block, we employed MDPSA and MeTIR to create a diverse array of functional supramolecular architectures which range from structurally tunable oligomers to metalloprotein complexes that can properly self-assemble in living cells into novel metalloenzymes. The design principles and strategies outlined herein should be readily applicable to other protein systems with the goal of creating new PPIs and protein assemblies with structures and functions not yet produced by natural evolution.

Kim, H.M.; Lee, H.S.

Biomacromolecules 2020, 21, 5021-5028, 10.1021/acs.biomac.0c01194

Many natural proteins function in oligomeric forms, which are critical for their sophisticated functions. The construction of protein assemblies has great potential for biosensors, enzyme catalysis, and biomedical applications. In designing protein assemblies, a critical process is to create protein–protein interaction (PPI) networks at defined sites of a target protein. Although a few methods are available for this purpose, most of them are dependent on existing PPIs of natural proteins to some extent. In this report, a metal-chelating amino acid, 2,2′-bipyridylalanine (BPA), was genetically introduced into defined sites of a monomeric protein and used to form protein oligomers. Depending on the number of BPAs introduced into the protein and the species of metal ions (Ni2+ and Cu2+), dimers or oligomers with different oligomerization patterns were formed by complexation with a metal ion. Oligomer sizes could also be controlled by incorporating two BPAs at different locations with varied angles to the center of the protein. When three BPAs were introduced, the monomeric protein formed a large complex with Ni2+. In addition, when Cu2+ was used for complex formation with the protein containing two BPAs, a linear complex was formed. The method proposed in this report is technically simple and generally applicable to various proteins with interesting functions. Therefore, this method would be useful for the design and construction of functional protein assemblies.

Ward, T.R.

Methods Enzymol. 2016, 539-556, 10.1016/bs.mie.2016.05.037

Artificial metalloenzymes represent an attractive means of combining state-of-the-art transition metal catalysis with the benefits of natural enzymes. Despite the tremendous recent progress in this field, current efforts toward the directed evolution of these hybrid biocatalysts mainly rely on the laborious, individual purification of protein variants rendering the throughput, and hence the outcome of these campaigns feeble. We have recently developed a screening platform for the directed evolution of artificial metalloenzymes based on the streptavidin–biotin technology in the periplasm of the Gram-negative bacterium Escherichia coli. This periplasmic compartmentalization strategy comprises a number of compelling advantages, in particular with respect to artificial metalloenzymes, which lead to a drastic increase in the throughput of screening campaigns and additionally are of unique value for future in vivo applications. Therefore, we highlight here the benefits of this strategy and intend to propose a generalized guideline for the development of novel transition metal-based biocatalysts by directed evolution in order to extend the natural enzymatic repertoire.

Hayashi, T

Methods Enzymol. 2016, 439-454, 10.1016/bs.mie.2016.05.049

An important strategy used in engineering of hemoproteins to generate artificial enzymes involves replacement of heme with an artificial cofactor after removal of the native heme cofactor under acidic conditions. Replacement of heme in an enzyme with a nonnatural metalloporphyrinoid can significantly alter the reactivity of the enzyme. This chapter describes the design and synthesis of three types of artificial metalloporphyrinoid cofactors consisting of mono-, di-, and tri-anionic ligands (tetradehydrocorrin, porphycene, and corrole, respectively). In addition, practical procedures for the preparation of apo-hemoproteins, incorporation of artificial cofactors, and characterization techniques are presented. Furthermore, the representative catalytic activities of artificial enzymes generated by reconstitution of hemoproteins are summarized.