Niemeyer, C.M.

Chem. - Asian J. 2009, 4, 1064-1069, 10.1002/asia.200900082

A hybrid myoglobin, containing a single‐stranded DNA anchor and a redox‐active ruthenium moiety tethered to the heme center can be used as a photocatalyst. The catalyst can be selectively immobilized on a surface‐bound complementary DNA molecule and thus readily recycled from complex reaction mixtures. This principle may be applied to a range of heme‐dependent enzymes allowing the generation of novel light‐triggered photocatalysts. Photoactivatable myoglobin containing a DNA oligonucleotide as a structural anchor was designed by using the reconstitution of artificial heme moieties containing Ru3+ ions. This semisynthetic DNA–enzyme conjugate was successfully used for the oxidation of peroxidase substrates by using visible light instead of H2O2 for the activation. The DNA anchor was utilized for the immobilization of the enzyme on the surface of magnetic microbeads. Enzyme activity measurements not only indicated undisturbed biofunctionality of the tethered DNA but also enabled magnetic separation‐based enrichment and recycling of the photoactivatable biocatalyst.

Fujieda, N.; Itoh, S.

Chem. - Asian J. 2012, 7, 1203-1207, 10.1002/asia.201101014

Teaching metalloenzymes new tricks: An artificial type III dicopper oxidase has been developed using a hydrolytic enzyme, metallo‐β‐lactamase, as a metal‐binding platform. The triple mutant D88G/S185H/P224G redesigned by computer‐assisted structural analysis showed spectroscopic features similar to those of type III copper proteins and exhibited a high catalytic activity in the oxidation of catechols under aerobic conditions.

Tanaka, K.

Nat. Catal. 2019, 2, 780-792, 10.1038/s41929-019-0317-4

The ability of natural metalloproteins to prevent inactivation of their metal cofactors by biological metabolites, such as glutathione, is an area that has been largely ignored in the field of artificial metalloenzyme (ArM) development. Yet, for ArM research to transition into future therapeutic applications, biocompatibility remains a crucial component. The work presented here shows the creation of a human serum albumin-based ArM that can robustly protect the catalytic activity of a bound ruthenium metal, even in the presence of 20 mM glutathione under in vitro conditions. To exploit this biocompatibility, the concept of glycosylated artificial metalloenzymes (GArM) was developed, which is based on functionalizing ArMs with N-glycan targeting moieties. As a potential drug therapy, this study shows that ruthenium-bound GArM complexes could preferentially accumulate to varying cancer cell lines via glycan-based targeting for prodrug activation of the anticancer agent umbelliprenin using ring-closing metathesis.

Hilvert, D.

Nat. Catal. 2018, 1, 578-584, 10.1038/s41929-018-0105-6

Non-canonical amino acid ligands are useful for fine-tuning the catalytic properties of metalloenzymes. Here, we show that recombinant replacement of the histidine ligand proximal to haem in myoglobin with Nδ-methylhistidine enhances the protein’s promiscuous carbene-transfer chemistry, enabling efficient styrene cyclopropanation in the absence of reductant, even under aerobic conditions. The increased electrophilicity of the modified Fe(iii) centre, combined with subtle structural adjustments at the active site, allows direct attack of ethyl diazoacetate to produce a reactive carbenoid adduct, which has an unusual bridging Fe(iii)–C–N(pyrrole) configuration as shown by X-ray crystallography. Quantum chemical calculations suggest that the bridged complex equilibrates with the more reactive end-on isomer, ensuring efficient cyclopropanation. These findings underscore the potential of non-canonical ligands for extending the capabilities of metalloenzymes by opening up new reaction pathways and facilitating the characterization of reactive species that would not otherwise accumulate.

Lee, S.-Y.

Chem. - Asian J. 2018, 13, 334-341, 10.1002/asia.201701543

Carbonic anhydrase (CA) is a ubiquitous metalloenzyme with a Zn cofactor coordinated to trigonal histidine imidazole moieties in a tetrahedral geometry. Removal of the Zn cofactor in CA and subsequent binding of Ir afforded CA[Ir]. Under mild and neutral conditions (30 °C, pH 7), CA[Ir] exhibited water‐oxidizing activity with a turnover frequency (TOF) of 39.8 min−1, which is comparable to those of other Ir‐based molecular catalysts. Coordination of Ir to the apoprotein of CA is thermodynamically preferred and is associated with an exothermic energy change (ΔH) of −10.8 kcal mol−1, which implies that the CA apoprotein is stabilized by Ir binding. The catalytic oxygen‐evolving activity of CA[Ir] is displayed only if Ir is bound to CA, which functions as an effective biological scaffold that activates the Ir center for catalysis. The results of this study indicate that the histidine imidazoles at the CA active site could be exploited as beneficial biological ligands to provide unforeseen biochemical activity by coordination to a variety of transition‐metal ions.

Sauer, D.F.; Schwaneberg, U.

Nat. Catal. 2021, 4, 814-827, 10.1038/s41929-021-00673-3

The field of artificial metalloenzymes (ArMs) is rapidly growing and ArMs are attracting increasing attention, for example, in the fields of biosensing and drug therapy. Protein-engineering methods that are commonly used to tailor the properties of natural enzymes are more frequently included in the design of ArMs. In particular, directed evolution allows the fine-tuning of ArMs, ultimately assisting in the development of their enormous potential. The integration of ArMs in whole cells enables their in vivo application and facilitates high-throughput directed-evolution methodologies. In this Review, we highlight the recent progress of whole-cell conversions and applications of ArMs and critically discuss their limitations and prospects. To focus on ArMs and their specific properties, advantages and challenges, the evolution of natural enzymes for non-natural reactions will not be covered.

Okuda, J.

Chem. - Asian J. 2015, 10, 177-182, 10.1002/asia.201403005

A biohybrid ring‐opening olefin metathesis polymerization catalyst based on the reengineered β‐barrel protein FhuA ΔCVFtev was chemically modified with respect to the covalently anchored Grubbs–Hoveyda type catalyst. Shortening of the spacer (1,3‐propanediyl to methylene) between the N‐heterocyclic carbene ligand and the cysteine site 545 increased the ROMP activity toward a water‐soluble 7‐oxanorbornene derivative. The cis/trans ratio of the double bond in the polymer was influenced by the hybrid catalyst.

Mangiatordi, G.F.; Salmain, M.

J. Mol. Catal. B: Enzym. 2015, 122, 314-322, 10.1016/j.molcatb.2015.10.007

Two half-sandwich d6-rhodium(III) complexes of the general formula [(η5-Cp*)Rh(N^N)Cl]Cl where N^N is a phenanthroline or a bispyridine methane derivative carrying a thiol-targeting maleimide or chloroacetamide function were synthesized and characterized. Both complexes were able to catalyse the transfer hydrogenation of 2,2,2-trifluoroacetophenone in aqueous medium using formate or phosphite as hydrogen donor. Covalent anchoring of these complexes to the cysteine endoproteinase papain yielded hybrid metalloproteins with transfer hydrogenase properties. Under optimized conditions of pH, hydrogen donor concentration and catalyst load, conversion of substrate was nearly quantitative within 24 h at 40 °C and the (S)-enantiomer was obtained preferably albeit with a modest enantiomeric excess of 7–10%. Covalent docking simulations complemented the experimental findings suggesting a molecular rationale for the observed low enantioselectivity. The harmonious use of experimental and theoretical approaches represents an unprecedented starting point for driving the rational design of artificial metalloenzymes built up from papain with higher catalytic efficiency.

Kitagawa, S.; Ueno, T.

Chem. - Asian J. 2014, 9, 1373-1378, 10.1002/asia.201301347

Porous protein crystals, which are protein assemblies in the solid state, have been engineered to form catalytic vessels by the incorporation of organometallic complexes. Ruthenium complexes in cross‐linked porous hen egg white lysozyme (HEWL) crystals catalyzed the enantioselective hydrogen‐transfer reduction of acetophenone derivatives. The crystals accelerated the catalytic reaction and gave different enantiomers based on the crystal form (tetragonal or orthorhombic). This method represents a new approach for the construction of bioinorganic catalysts from protein crystals.

Matsuo, T.

Chem. - Asian J. 2011, 6, 2491-2499, 10.1002/asia.201100107

H64D myoglobin mutant was reconstituted with two different types of synthetic hemes that have aromatic rings and a carboxylate‐based cluster attached to the terminus of one or both of the heme‐propionate moieties, thereby forming a “single‐winged cofactor” and “double‐winged cofactor,” respectively. The reconstituted mutant myoglobins have smaller Km values with respect to 2‐methoxyphenol oxidation activity relative to the parent mutant with native heme. This suggests that the attached moiety functions as a substrate‐binding domain. However, the kcat value of the mutant myoglobin with the double‐winged cofactor is much lower than that of the mutant with the native heme. In contrast, the mutant reconstituted with the single‐winged cofactor has a larger kcat value, thereby resulting in overall catalytic activity that is essentially equivalent to that of the native horseradish peroxidase. Enhanced peroxygenase activity was also observed for the mutant myoglobin with the single‐winged cofactor, thus indicating that introduction of an artificial substrate‐binding domain at only one of the heme propionates in the H64D mutant is the optimal engineering strategy for improving the peroxidase activity of myoglobin.

Duhme-Klair, A.K.; Wilson, K.S.

Nat. Catal. 2018, 1, 680-688, 10.1038/s41929-018-0124-3

Artificial metalloenzymes that contain protein-anchored synthetic catalysts are attracting increasing interest. An exciting, but still unrealized advantage of non-covalent anchoring is its potential for reversibility and thus component recycling. Here we present a siderophore–protein combination that enables strong but redox-reversible catalyst anchoring, as exemplified by an artificial transfer hydrogenase (ATHase). By linking the iron(iii)-binding siderophore azotochelin to an iridium-containing imine-reduction catalyst that produces racemic product in the absence of the protein CeuE, but a reproducible enantiomeric excess if protein bound, the assembly and reductively triggered disassembly of the ATHase was achieved. The crystal structure of the ATHase identified the residues involved in high-affinity binding and enantioselectivity. While in the presence of iron(iii), the azotochelin-based anchor binds CeuE with high affinity, and the reduction of the coordinated iron(iii) to iron(ii) triggers its dissociation from the protein. Thus, the assembly of the artificial enzyme can be controlled via the iron oxidation state.

Roelfes, G.

Nat. Catal. 2020, 3, 289-294, 10.1038/s41929-019-0420-6

Artificial enzymes, which are hybrids of proteins with abiological catalytic groups, have emerged as a powerful approach towards the creation of enzymes for new-to-nature reactions. Typically, only a single abiological catalytic moiety is incorporated. Here we introduce a design of an artificial enzyme that comprises two different abiological catalytic moieties and show that these can act synergistically to achieve high activity and enantioselectivity (up to >99% e.e.) in the catalysed Michael addition reaction. The design is based on the lactococcal multidrug resistance regulator as the protein scaffold and combines a genetically encoded unnatural p-aminophenylalanine residue (which activates an enal through iminium ion formation) and a supramolecularly bound Lewis acidic Cu(ii) complex (which activates the Michael donor by enolization and delivers it to one preferred prochiral face of the activated enal). This study demonstrates that synergistic combination of abiological catalytic groups is a robust way to achieve catalysis that is normally outside of the realm of artificial enzymes.